“For us to realize gender equality all and sundry must be involved, religious leaders, parliamentarians from State to the National Assembly, Policy administrators, brothers, fathers, churches, mosques etc must support gender equality”. Says Professor Ngozi P. Nwosu Professor of Sociology of Education, Nasarawa State University Keffi.
Making this assertion shortly after delivering the 43rd Inaugural lecture on the topic: Nigeria Gender on Zealous Imagination: New ways of sustaining understanding at Nasarawa State University Keffi recently, said Cultural expectation from women who gave birth to daughters without a male child especially in Igbo land discriminated against the women who often meets their untimely death as a result of high blood pressure, sugar in the blood, stigmatization by husbands, parents, relations for not bearing male children. Such ladies she stated are not regarded in their families and the society.
“In the quest for a male child any woman who does not bring a male child in Igbo land is seen as not bringing goodluck” she stated.
Professor Ngozi Nwosu informed that following constant advocacies on promoting gender equality in Igbo land today, things have really changed for good as daughters are being trained because they discovered that training the girl child is not a waste but eternal asset. It was observed; she stated often the boys reaching adulthood often takes care of their children and their wives, while their parents are left to be cared by their daughters who are women.
She said the inaugural lecture became imperative because it is now an eye opener from religious cycle and for parents to know how to support the gender.
In identifying what disqualifies the girl child and demean them is the incessant hawking during school hours, calling on the government to issue a law to stop it by establishing an agency that will be saddled with such responsibility.
THE CONCEPT OF GENDER
UNESCO defined gender as the roles and responsibilities of men and women created in our families, societies and our cultures. The concept of gender also includes the expectations held about the characteristics, aptitudes and likely behaviours of both women and men femininity and masculinity and so gender roles are learned, they can change overtime and they vary between and within cultures. For example, in the Igbo South East Geo-Political Zone of Nigeria, it is a societal abomination for a man to fetch firewood, fetch water from the stream or pump, sweep the house, cook food, or bath the children when the wife is hale and healthy. A man doing so is ironically called ‘Ewu Nwanyi Puu’ literally meaning the that that is being led/dragged by a woman and metaphorically meaning a man that his wife is controlling. Yet, such roles can be reformed by men in the North Western. North-Eastern Geo-Political Zones of Nigeria, that is the core Northern States that are mainly and majorly Muslim. The reason is that their women are under Puddah (not to be seen outside or by other men), so it is not abnormal for their husbands to be seen sweeping, fetching water, fetching firewood, or doing other domestic chores.
Systems of social differentiations such as political status, class ethnicity, physical and mental disability, age, and more modify gender roles. The concept of gender is vital because applied to social analysis, it reveals how women’s subordination (or men’s domination) is socially constructed as such the subordination can be changed or ended. It is not biological.
Sali, Ahikire and Madanda (2007) defined gender as referring to socially constructed differences and distinctions between men and women. They noted that gender differs from sex in that sex is biological while gender is not biologically determined. Gender distinctions, they contend include the different attributes, statuses, roles, responsibilities, and potentials as well as their access to, and control over resources and benefits.
Gender is also defined as cultural meanings attached to being masculine and feminine, which influences personal and psychological aspects of being female or male which goes beyond biological sex but includes a person’s understanding of the meaning to his or her own life of being male or female. It is a socially constructed definition between men and women. Put differently, it is the role society has ascribed to men and women to differentiate between the two sexes.
Oakley (1972) refers to gender as culturally specific patterns of behaviour, either actual or normative, that may be contributed to the sexes. Haviland (2003:365) defined it as cultural elaborations and meanings assigned to the biological differentiation between the sexes. Although, one’s sex is biologically determined, one’s sexual identity or gender is culturally constructed.
Cotter (2004), defined gender as social attributes and opportunities in being male and the relationships between males and females. Akanni (2008), on his part defined gender as a set of relationship that shows what being a man or woman within a society is. The concept as a matter of fact describes and analyses roles, relationships, status, expectations, obligations and the entire notion of what is ascribed by culture to females and males based on biological make up. Gender is socially constructed roles that men and women are expected to perform in a given society, be it family, community or as a matter of fact in all ramifications of life.
West and Zimmerman (1987) suggest that gender is a routine methodical and recurring accomplishment. “Doing Gender” involves a complex of socially guided perceptual interactional and micro-political activities that cast particular pursuits as expressive of masculine and feminine nature. Rather than viewing gender as a property of emergent feature of social situations that result from legitimate gender inequality (Scott, 1989)
Gender refers to the social relations between men and women. It refers to the relationship between men and women, boys and girls, and how this is socially constructed. Gender refers to human traits linked by culture to create sex (Haralambos & Holborn, 2004). Within a society, males are socialized to be masculine as females are taught to be feminine. Thus gender is the difference that sex makes within a society guiding how we are to think of ourselves, how we interact with others, the social opportunities, occupations, family roles as prestige allowed to males and females.
Gender Differences
Gender differences according to Shaw (1988) would refer to those average group differences between men and women that are likely due to sexually monomorphic psychological adaptations combined with culturally dimorphic socialization. (or, we may eventually find that they may be distant by- products of sexually dimorphic adaptations.
alleydog.com defined gender differences as variances between males and females that are based on biological adaptations that are the same for both sexes. This differs from sex differences in that sex differences are driven by actual biological gender disparity such as distinct physical differences) rather than by the differing environmental factors that affect our cognition and behaviour.
In every society however, it has been discovered that women are ascribed less honourable roles. The roles given to women are the demeaning roles of domestic workers, and hawkers of goods. housewives, caregivers, etc. These are roles that make it difficult for women to get into the society. It is worthy to note that gender differences are created and sustained by society through its traditions, customs, conventions, mores and regulations. The gender notion about males and females includes traditional stereotypes that characterize women as weak, and fragile. submissive, illogical, fearful, passive, talkative, emotional, and easily moved to tears, to mention but a few. Men, on the other hand, are assumed to be strong, competent, fearless, logical and independent. These stereotypes tend to reflect men and women as belonging to opposite ends of bipolar adjectives in which men have desirable qualities, while women have undesirable ones. Societal norms and stereotypes also function as traditional ideology that relegates women to housewifery roles, while promoting men as actors, providers and final authority.
THE SOCIO-CULTURAL CONTEXT OF THE GIRL – CHILD EDUCATION
Introduction
Education is one of the most complex of human activities. It involves the training of the individual in various aspects of human experience. To that end education takes into account the physical, intellectual, technical and moral training of the individual. Every society whether simple or complex has its own system of training its young members. However, the goal of education and method of instruction may differ from society to society. The Greek idea of an educated person was one who was mentally and physically well-balanced. The Romans on the other hand, placed emphasis on oratorical and military training. For pre- colonial Africa the warrior, the hunter, the nobleman, the man of character or anyone who combined such unique qualities was regarded as a well-educated person. Traditionally, education in Africa was functional. According Fafunwa (1974) African society regarded education as a means to end and not an end in itself. It was generally for the immediate induction into society, and a preparation for adult life. Naturally, we begin our discussion by defining or clarifying the keys concepts of culture and education being used here.
The Concept of Culture
Tylor (1967) defines culture as the complex whole including knowledge, belief, art, morals, laws customs, and other abilities and habitats acquired by people as members of society. Defining culture more philosophically Geertz (1975:89) asserts that culture denotes an historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions, expressed in symbolic forms by means of which human beings communicate, perpetuate and develop their knowledge about and attitudes to life. The definition touches on very knportant elements that constitute the nature of culture. Meaning has to import the beliefs, aspirations, hopes, and even the fears of a people a people’s culture is a complex intermingling of environmental physical, social, economic, and personal, Rosen’s (1989) postulates that in speaking about one’s culture, one has many options because there are no limits as to the symbolic transformation culture can accommodate process of enculturation in ways and values which ensures that shared beliefs, values, and styles of behaviour are passed on to others. For instance, children learn eating manners appropriate to the community; they learn to share and compete, work and play. Social virtues are also taught along with other beliefs and practices, including prejudices towards other groups, male and female roles, and sexual morality.
The Definition of Culture
There are several definitions of education, which educational philosophers may put forward. However, we will make do with only some of the ideas. The oxford dictionary and Thesaurus (1993) postulates that to educate is to give intellectual, moral, and social instruction to an individual as a formal and prolonged process. For the BBC English Dictionary (1992) education consists of teaching people various subjects at a school or college. We can look at education in a broad or restrictive sense. Broadly, education embraces all those experiences of the individual through which knowledge is acquired, the intellect enlightened, and moral strength built. In the restrictive sense, education implies the consciously planned and systematically applied formal education, or the training carried out through the various social agencies, especially the school. Thus education refers not only to the process by which we acquire knowledge, skills, habits, values, or attitudes, but also to the result of that process. The origin of education is broadly perceived, back to the beginning of mankind 200,000 years, when our ancestors of genius homo started to use their imagination to develop skills and competencies to enable them to live and survive in their environment. Human beings have since time immemorial recognized the importance of education in their lives. Plato has given us a model of an educated society. He envisaged in his republic, a permanent stable, hierarchical society in which the most adept at education would rule, the moderately adept would become warriors and carry out the order of rulers, for guardians, at the least adept would fill the lower functions in the society. Plato believed that God’s government would only come from an educated society in which kings are philosophers and philosopher’s kings. phistotle stressed that education should be controlled by the state, and that it should have as its main objective, the training of citizens. He insisted that no one would doubt that the legislator should direct his attention, above all, to the education of youth. He concluded that the essence of education is to serve both the needs of the individual and the society.
Education of the Girl-Child
Owasonye and Adekunle (1996) define a child statutorily as a person under 14 years of age, while a young person is between the age of 14 and 17 years old. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child defines a child as a person below the age of 18 years, unless under the law applicable to the child the age of majority is attained earlier. Owasonye and Adekunle (1996) observe that the customary definition of child however varies from ethnic group to ethnic group due to the lack of uniform system of customary law in Nigeria. They point out that in some ethnic groups a boy remains a child until initiated into an age grade or until he is old enough to contribute financially to community development. In others childhood terminates at puberty. Regarding traditional attitudes towards the child, O Adekunle (1196) remark that in a traditional Africa 8/12 attitude of the family, especially parents towards children is warn, exciting, positive and full of expectations for the future of the child. The regard for children is both physical and spiritual. In the physical realm children represent proof or manhood or womanhood. In terms of the spiritual, children are gifts from God which should not be rejected.
Article 1 of the World Declaration of the Right of the Child to Education states that every person, child, youth and adult, shall be able to benefit opportunities from educational designed to meet basic learning needs. (UNICEF, p.4) further explanation in Article 3 indicates that the most urgent priority is to ensure access to, and improve the quality of education for the girls and women and to remove every obstacle that hampers their active participation. It also declared:
An active commitment must be made to removing educational disparities. Undeserved groups: the poor, street and working children, rural and remote populations, nomads and migrant workers, indigenous peoples, ethnic, racial and linguistic minorities; refugees, those displaced by war, and people under occupation, should not suffer any discrimination in access to learning opportunities.
The Family and the Girl-Child Education
All over the world, the family is recognized as the basic unit of society, the nucleus, the first and vital cell of the society. Whether in its nuclear or extended form, the family remains the centre of existence and the powerhouse for the development. Wegh (2003) has shown that among the Tiv, the family is known as tsombur (umbilical cord) which symbolizes that just as the child is united to the mother through the umbilical cord, so also one must be united with one’s family in order to survive and function.
In traditional society the orientation of the child towards basic social values begins very early. Since Africans cherish family life, the first objective is to socialize the child in the experiences of marriage/family life. Through this socialization the child knows that he or she will play the role of husband or wife, father or mother. Marriage in traditional society is not an end in itself, but a means of raising a family through procreation. Hillman (1975) Hugh (1979) and Wegh (2003) have emphasized the procreative value of marriage in traditional society. Hugh affirms that the Chinese family does not allow a man free choice of his wife because he might put his individual considerations above those of the family. He stresses that the primary goal of a husband and wife is to contribute to the family and not to like each other. The deep sense of family solidarity which is traced back several centuries imposes the duty to continue the family. It follows that children are an asset in African societies, as well as other traditional societies. The failure to leave behind a sufficient number of offspring to continue the family is a major disaster.
Speaking of the love of Africans for children, Ellis (1972) intimates that greater attention is lavished on the new baby, who is everyone’s favourite. The child in an African home receives love and great warmth, not only from the mother and the immediate family, but also from relatives and friends of the family.
Apart from the socialization that the child undergoes into family life, other areas of child education include the development of intellectual capacities, technical skills and moral character.
The Development of Intellectual Capacities
The development of intellectual capacities is a vital importance since such capacities form the basis for all other forms of development. Without intellectual ability, the individual cannot learn, comprehend and absorb what is taught. African children learn about their people and ways of life through oral communication. Children memorize stories that teach different kinds of lessons for life and also help in the development of the mind.
Development of Technical skills
The development of psychomotor or technical skills is crucial for the survival of the individual and the community. As Wegh (2006) noted that without technical knowledge we cannot achieve technological advancement which is necessary for socio-economic development. Traditional society knows this and that is why the education of the child has always involved the acquisition of various skills-weaving, sculpturing, blacksmithing, carving, leather working, dying and numerous skills.
Development of Moral Character
Morality or ethics concerns right or wrong behavior. To have a moral life is to have a conviction that is rooted in conscience, governs direct behavior and its impact on people. Moral education aims develop the conscience, governs direct moral ethical and spiritual values which will form the basis for good and responsible behaviour in society. As Dada (1969) has noted the whole education of a child will be meaningless if after going into society. Traditional society takes the moral formation of child seriously. Character training is a cornerstone of traditional and modern education which emphasizes social responsibility, job creation and political participation. Children also learn sexual education. Many traditional societies observe exogamous principles in marital and sexual life. Sexual activity is regulated by taboos, and such attract corresponding sanctions.
Cultural Constraint in the Girl-child Education
Education of the girl-child has often been constrained by socio- economic factors. These factors are generally related to traditional ideology. There are also the economic factors that militate against the girl-child education.
To begin with, in Nigeria, there is what one may refer to as the syndrome for the make child. Parents usually prefer male children to female ones. This attitude is rooted in traditional ideology. The explanation given by Wegh (2003) in respect to Tiv society equally applies to other societies. He intimates that the Tiv being a patrilineal society put a premium on male children. The Tiv social system of compound dwelling and its pattern of land and property inheritance through the male child make having a male child a source of great anxiety. The male child is taught to be both aggressive and assertive. He learns very early in life that he must be physically and mentally strong.
This is because the onus is on him to continue the family by marrying, having children and defending his family. The girl-child on the other hand is socialized into being subordinate and submissive. In this way she prepares for the role of a wife and mother. Owing to the marital and familial aspirations pursued by traditional societies, more attention is given to the education of the male child. This is based on traditional belief that the male child is expected to shoulder family responsibilities, and also be its bread winner. The girl- child on the other hand suffers discrimination. By and large parents are reluctant to send their daughters to school because of the fear that they may become pregnant, and bring shame to their families. Girls are therefore given away for early marriage, with the responsibility of early pregnancy and the danger of contracting vesico virgina fistula (VVF) disease.
Although the traditional attitude towards girl-child education may remain the backwards, it is becoming clear that the attitude is changing and parents are becoming more disposed to the education of their daughters. Parents realize that it is economically viable to educate their daughters. Gbakon (2005) found in her study that girls are being sent to school because it is they who come back to take care of their sick parents. One other reason why parents are changing their minds towards the girl-child education is that educated parents consider personal development of their daughters as a strong motive for their education.
In former times educated women were avoided as they were seen as modern, immoral and insubordinate. Today prospective husbands show a preference for educated women. With people desiring higher education in order to improve their chances of finding employment, educated women are seen as economic assets. “The educated women have economic value both for her parents and her husband. With her work, she could contribute meaningfully to the family income, (Wegh, 2003: 182).
A correlation between the economy and the functions of sustaining educating and moralizing family members has long been established. Low-income parents or those without jobs have no economic power to look after their children. On the whole, those who are deprived or disadvantaged tend to face multiple difficulties. For example, they are likely to have inferior housing. Such housing together with low incomes is often accompanied by cultural handicaps which relate particularly to child rearing. In spite of our oil wealth, Nigerians continue to live a life of abject poverty. The 2007 listing of countries on the poverty index by Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, indicates that 92.4% of the Nigerian population is living on less than 2 dollars per day. The sharp and tragic decline of the Nigerian economy couples with deep unemployment levels have brought misery to ordinary families. People lack both money and basic necessities such as food, water, education, healthcare and shelter.
Conclusion
This paper has examined the subject matter of girl child education. It is clean from the discussion that the attitude of the society towards girl-child education is rooted in the tradition worldwide. This attitude we have argued lingers in our society today and has negative consequences for the education of the girl-child. This paper also noted the socio-economic constraints in the girl-child education such as the preference for the male child, and economic decline. Stressing that, the education of the girl-child is a matter of human rights. We submit that policies formulated by the government must be implemented for the advancement of education. Finally, it is a matter of urgency that parents are empowered with age employment, so that they can cater for the educational needs of their children.